The generally accepted view of intelligence is that it is about cognitive or mental ability. Charles Spearman, one of the early pioneers in thinking about intelligence called it the ‘g’ factor, and intelligence tests have been designed to measure it.
However, few people now believe that intelligence is a concept that can be described in such simple terms, and some have sought to explore our understanding of intelligence more fully.
The best known and by far the most influential theory is that of ‘multiple intelligence’ as set out by a Harvard University Professor, Howard Gardner, in 1983. He defined multiple intelligence as a set of abilities, talents or mental skills that all individuals possess to a greater or lesser extent. Gardner identified seven different kinds of intelligence. (He has since considered the existence and definitions of other possible intelligences in his later work.) He argued that individuals differ only in the level of their skills and how these intelligences combine.
Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences can be summarised as follows:
Linguistic Intelligence (word smart) refers to the ability to use words and language, both written and spoken. Such learners have highly developed auditory skills and are fluent speakers. They think in words rather than pictures. Their skills include listening, speaking, writing, story telling, explaining and teaching.
Logical Intelligence (logic smart) refers to the ability to reason, apply logic and work with numbers. Such learners think conceptually in logical and numerical patterns, making connections between pieces of information. Their skills include problem solving, classifying and categorising information, thinking logically, questioning, carrying out investigations, performing mathematical calculations and working with geometric shapes.
Visual-spatial Intelligence (picture smart) refers to the ability to perceive the visual. Such learners tend to think in pictures and need to create vivid mental images to retain information. Their skills include understanding charts and graphs, sketching, painting, creating visual images and constructing, fixing, and designing practical objects.
Musical Intelligence (music smart) refers to the ability to produce and appreciate music. These musically inclined learners think in sounds, rhythms and patterns. They immediately respond to music either appreciating or criticising what they hear. Their skills include singing, playing musical instruments, recognising sounds and tonal patterns, composing music and remembering melodies.
Bodily Kinaesthetic Intelligence (body smart) refers to the ability to control body movements and handle objects skilfully. Such learners express themselves best through movement. They have a good sense of balance and hand-eye coordination. Through interacting with the space around them, they are able to remember and process information. Their skills include dancing, physical coordination, sports, crafts, acting, miming and using their hands to create or build.
Interpersonal Intelligence (people smart) refers to the ability to relate to and understand other people. These learners are able to sense feelings, intentions and motivations and are adept at recognising non-verbal language, for example body language. Their skills include seeing things from other perspectives, listening, using empathy, understanding other people's moods and feelings and communicating both verbally and non-verbally.
Intrapersonal Intelligence (self smart) refers to the ability to understand ourselves, who we are, and what makes us the way that we are. Such learners are able to recognise their own strengths and weaknesses and have a capacity for self-analysis, awareness of their inner feelings, desires and dreams, evaluating their thinking patterns and reasoning with themselves.
According to Gardner, all individuals possess each of these intelligences to some extent, although individuals will differ in the degree of skills and in the nature of their combination. Gardner stresses that it is the interaction between the different intelligences that is fundamental to the workings of the mind and that in the normal course of events, the intelligences actually interact with, and build upon, one another. Howard Gardner later proposed an eighth intelligence, ‘naturalistic’.
The main messages arising from Gardner’s model are set out below.
We are all born with a unique mix of all eight intelligences.
Intelligences combine in complex ways.
There are many ways to be intelligent within each category.
Most people can develop each intelligence to an adequate level of competency.
Schools tend to focus mainly on two intelligences, those associated with academic intelligence, that is, linguistic and logical/mathematical.
The school curriculum should be better balanced in order to reflect a wider range of intelligences.
The idea that intelligence is multifaceted is not new. In the 1930s, Thurstone was critical of Spearman’s model of a single or general intelligence and argued that people possessed several multiple abilities.
Since then, other researchers have developed different models associated with multiple intelligence. In the 1960s a Californian psychologist, J P Guildford, proposed a three-dimensional structure of intelligence and suggested that there are 120 separate categories that define the intellectual capacities that make up intelligence.
The New York psychologist David Wechsler also described intelligence as a multi-faceted 'aggregate or global capacity' and devised tests that are widely used by psychologists when assessing children.
Robert Sternberg proposed a triarchic model in which the first branch is analytical intelligence, the second practical intelligence and the third creative intelligence.
Other writers have put forward different concepts of intelligence. Tony Buzan, for example, has identified ten intelligences that include categories such as creative intelligence, personal intelligence, social intelligence and spiritual intelligence.
Much more recently the concept of emotional intelligence has become popular following the publication of Daniel Goleman’s book, 'Emotional Intelligence', in 1995 and another paper in this series is dedicated to this area.
Although widely acclaimed in the latter part of the 20th century, there has also been criticism of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Many believe that his categories overplay the arts and underplay practical and emotional intelligence. It is often argued that there is no hard psychological evidence to prove that these different intelligences exist.
Gardner actually conceded this, but pointed out that producing that evidence would mean designing psychometric tests for each intelligence and testing thousands of people in order to create ‘norms’ against which others could be measured. Gardner never claimed that these were the only intelligences, or that they were separate from each other.
Gardner did argue, however, that his theory had some basis in neurology and claimed that certain distinct abilities such as musical ability are associated with a particular part of the brain. He claimed that work also took into account cultural aspects of intelligence by referring to studies of geniuses and autistic savants. In his view, it made sense to accord intelligence separate ‘status’ if it could be linked to a part of the brain that was to some extent dedicated to this activity.
Bartholomew and others have argued that although Gardner’s work draws attention to a possible biological basis for multiple intelligence, it does not undermine the theory of general intelligence.
Gardner’s model of multiple intelligences is only a theory and is not rooted in hard evidence. It is, however, possible to argue that in recent years it has had more influence on the world of education than any other theory. Indeed Gardner has been described as a ‘giant in education’, despite the fact he claims he wrote his book for academics and never sought to influence the curriculum or teaching methodology.
Multiple intelligence theory has spawned a series of books, board and card games, and commercial tests, most of which have been discredited.
The theory of multiple intelligences has proved to be an influential model in schools and has been used by educators to reflect on what we see as important in learning and teaching.
Professor Howard Gardner’s ideas on multiple intelligences have had most appeal in the classroom where they confirm what teachers know from their everyday experience, namely that pupils have different skills and capabilities. The theory can be used to discuss what we mean when we describe people as being ‘intelligent’, ‘able’, ‘gifted’, ‘talented’ or ‘clever’ to remind students that everyone is good at some things and has difficulty with others.
Gardner is extremely critical of traditional school systems, which he says are based on outdated models that regard intelligence as fixed and general. He also believes that schools place far too great an emphasis on logical/mathematical and verbal/linguistic intelligences and in doing so fail to develop other talents and capacities of young people.
Multiple intelligences provide a wide variety of identifiable areas of knowledge and skills beyond the traditional verbal and numerical to include the personal, social and creative. By focusing on these and other intelligences, pupils can more easily discover that they have strengths and use the resulting gains in confidence to develop those areas in which they are not so strong.
Multiple intelligences can be used as a conceptual framework for organising and reflecting on the curriculum. Teachers can use the theory of multiple intelligences to get to know each pupil’s dominant strengths and areas for development.
In applying theories of intelligence in the classroom, it is important that teachers do not categorise or compartmentalise learners, but instead recognise that pupils are strong in some aspects of intelligence and less strong in others. All young people should be provided with learning opportunities that help to nurture and develop their talents and abilities, and assessment methodologies should reflect the multiple nature of intelligence.
The researcher Carol Dweck, has shown that our attitudes to success strongly affect our self-motivation and our willingness to try when learning gets tough. People who think that their success (or the lack of it) is down to a fixed level of intelligence, tend to give up trying to be successful and put more effort into avoiding failure.
Getting beliefs about intelligence into the open and reflecting on them can help people feel more positive and optimistic about both learning and life in general. It is not about how smart you are, but how can you get smarter.
Multiple intelligences can help learners to reflect on their own perceptions about intelligence, cleverness and ability. It is important to focus not only on the meaning of intelligence, but also on how people become more intelligent.
'Frames of Mind' (Howard Gardner, 1983)
'Multiple Intelligences: the Theory in Practice' (Howard Gardner, Harper Collins, 1993)
'Measuring Intelligence' (David Bartholomew, Cambridge, 2004)
'Outsmarting IQ: The Emergence of a Science of Learnable Intelligence' (David Perkins)
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